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Nature-based solutions: Oceans

Plankton bloom image: NASA Earth Observatory

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Oceans: our ultimate climate superheroes

Summary

We think of trees and soil as carbon sinks, but the world’s oceans hold far larger carbon stocks and are more effective at storing carbon permanently. The total area of the Zealandia continent is about 6 million square kilometres, so the average rate of calcium carbonate storage [in the ocean floor] was about 120 million tonnes per year, which is equivalent to 53 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year. – Sutherland and Alergret (2022)

This Southern Ocean warming and its associated impacts are effectively irreversible on human time scales, because it takes millennia for heat trapped deep in the ocean to be released back into the atmosphere. – Huguenin et al, Sept. 2022

It is now evident that this part of the global circulatory system is slowing down far faster than anticipated (Video 2).

Because we are surrounded by so much ocean, we [thought] we were protected a bit by warming effects, this [data] is saying that’s not true.NIWA, 2024

Phytoplankton – microscopic algae that form the base of marine food-webs – is tending to decrease in New Zealand’s warmer northern waters.Stats NZ 09 July 2024

  • Every second breath you take is because 50-80% of the oxygen in our atmosphere comes from the ocean, much of it from plankton but some may also be produced by the oxidisation of metal nodules, which are under threat from proposed deep-sea mining operations:

Scientists made the discovery while sampling the seabed in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, a ridge extending 4,500 miles across the eastern Pacific. When they discovered oxygen 13,000 feet underwater, in areas so dark that photosynthesis would be impossible –  Yale Environment 360, July 2024

  • Warm water has much less oxygen; this is leading to an irreversible loss in marine ecosystems:

Warming of the oceans and associated deoxygenation are altering marine ecosystems. Current knowledge suggests these changes may be reversible on a centennial timescale at the ocean surface but irreversible at deeper depths even if global warming were to ameliorate. – Santana-Falcón et al, 2023

  • Of the 65,000 endemic species in New Zealand ~80% are in our oceans and 44% of those are found nowhere else in the world.
  • Aotearoa’s exclusive economic zone it’s 14 times larger than our land area; yet just 1% is protected (around 7% of territorial coastal waters are protected).
  • Absorbing so much CO2 has changed the chemistry of the ocean, making it 30% more acidic than pre-Industrial levels.
  • Trawling the ocean floor for fish releases more carbon in a year than the pre-Covid global aviation industry.

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Summary

We think of trees and soil as carbon sinks, but the world’s oceans hold far larger carbon stocks and are more effective at storing carbon permanently. The total area of the Zealandia continent is about 6 million square kilometres, so the average rate of calcium carbonate storage [in the ocean floor] was about 120 million tonnes per year, which is equivalent to 53 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year. – Sutherland and Alergret (2022)

This Southern Ocean warming and its associated impacts are effectively irreversible on human time scales, because it takes millennia for heat trapped deep in the ocean to be released back into the atmosphere. – Huguenin et al, Sept. 2022

It is now evident that this part of the global circulatory system is slowing down far faster than anticipated (Video 2).

Because we are surrounded by so much ocean, we [thought] we were protected a bit by warming effects, this [data] is saying that’s not true.NIWA, 2024

Phytoplankton – microscopic algae that form the base of marine food-webs – is tending to decrease in New Zealand’s warmer northern waters.Stats NZ 09 July 2024

  • Every second breath you take is because 50-80% of the oxygen in our atmosphere comes from the ocean, much of it from plankton and also the oxidisation of metal nodules, which are under threat from proposed deep-sea mining operations:

Scientists made the discovery while sampling the seabed in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, a ridge extending 4,500 miles across the eastern Pacific. When they discovered oxygen 13,000 feet underwater, in areas so dark that photosynthesis would be impossible –  Yale Environment 360, July 2024

  • Warm water has much less oxygen; this is leading to an irreversible loss in marine ecosystems:

Warming of the oceans and associated deoxygenation are altering marine ecosystems. Current knowledge suggests these changes may be reversible on a centennial timescale at the ocean surface but irreversible at deeper depths even if global warming were to ameliorate. – Santana-Falcón et al, 2023

  • Of the 65,000 endemic species in New Zealand ~80% are in our oceans and 44% of those are found nowhere else in the world.
  • Aotearoa’s exclusive economic zone it’s 14 times larger than our land area; yet just 1% is protected (around 7% of territorial coastal waters are protected).
  • Absorbing so much CO2 has changed the chemistry of the ocean, making it 30% more acidic than pre-Industrial levels.
  • Trawling the ocean floor for fish releases more carbon in a year than the pre-Covid global aviation industry.

“Marine sediments are the largest pool of organic carbon on the planet and a crucial reservoir for long-term storage. If left undisturbed, organic carbon stored in marine sediments can remain there for millennia. However, disturbance of these carbon stores can re-mineralize sedimentary carbon to CO2, which is likely to increase ocean acidification, reduce the buffering capacity of the ocean and potentially add to the build-up of atmospheric CO2. Thus, protecting the carbon-rich seabed is a potentially important nature-based solution to climate change... Eliminating 90% of the present risk of carbon disturbance due to bottom trawling would require protecting 3.6% of the ocean.”     Sala et al, 2021

“By drastically reducing fish biomass over the past century, industrial fishing may be affecting ocean chemistry, nutrient fluxes,and carbon cycling as much as climate change.” – Zimmer, 2021.

Video 1
Video 2: Krill are carbon superheros

The problems

Video 3: The authors explain the results of their landmark paper: Is the Southern Ocean about to have its own ‘Day After Tomorrow’ moment? Fact-checked by experts, the video explains how these changes would profoundly alter the ocean’s overturning of heat, freshwater, oxygen, carbon and nutrients, with impacts felt throughout the global ocean for centuries to come.

The ocean is a world where gravity poses no limits. Billions of creatures great and small live all the way up through the water column, in some places as high as several kilometers. In this world, not all forests are tethered to the ground. Flowing with the currents, seeking sunlight, they hover near the surface, taking in nutrients and carbon dioxide and producing half the oxygen we need to breath.

Then imagine machines reaching down from above, harvesting everything they can, in some cases, just to be used to feed fish penned in fish farms. This industrial scale fishing and the resultant loss of biomass has interfered with the natural carbon cycle.

But in some case, bottom trawling aims to harvest just one or two species like the long-lived orange roughy—a mainstay of our fish ‘n chips in spite of it having some of the highest mercury content of any fish on the planet. The machine trawlers decimate everything in their paths, bulldozing and tearing apart the floors of the ocean, destroying reefs that took centuries to grow. The CO2 stored safely in the seabed is released, joining the 25-30% excess CO2 the oceans have already swallowed from the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution. This ‘double whammy’ now makes the water even more acidic. The few creatures left living in the upper reaches of the water column that survived the initial destruction soon die, robbed of crucial nutrients that they once exchanged with the bottom dwellers. The dead fall to the ocean floor. But now, with nothing left to recycle their nutrients, their decay turns hypoxic—a place devoid of oxygen. Nothing can live there anymore. 

These are the ‘dead zones’. And they grow larger every year. This is not science fiction. This is our ocean (Fig. 1).

Along the coasts, the great living structures than once stored so much blue carbon—reefs, kelp, mangrove forests and seagrasses—are also decimated. Some of this destruction is to make way for massive coastal developments: harbours, fish farms, marinas, and multi-million dollar resorts. Others because of a combination of less visible but equally devastating marine heatwaves, which have doubled because of climate change, and increasingly acidic oceanic waters.

The solutions: Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

Protecting the oceans isn’t just about protecting fish stock. Without blue carbon we face an existential crisis—literally a threat to our existence. But as former NOAA director Jane Lubchenco says, it’s time to stop thinking of the ocean as a victim of climate change and start thinking of it as a powerful part of the solution (Fig. 2). 

“Marine reserves are a viable low-tech, cost-effective adaptation strategy that would yield multiple cobenefits from local to global scales, improving the outlook for the environment and people into the future.”Roberts et al 2017

When we think of the unique plants and animals that inhabit Aotearo, we tend to think of kiwis and kakapo, weta and ferns. But, of the 65,000 species unique to New Zealand, ~80% are found in the ocean we claim as our economic zone. And yet, less than 1% of our marine and coastal biodiversity is fully protected compared with over 30% of our land (Fig. 3).

In the past, MPAs were created primarily to provide the foundation for sustainable fisheries. By not fishing in these areas, fish stocks not only replenish quickly, they soon spill over into areas outside the protected zones.

Providing seafood is just one part of the story. Oceanic currents play a critical role in our weather. We also need their blue carbon capabilities to draw excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. We need coastal oceanic ecosystems like reefs, mangroves, and sea-grasses to act as shock absorbers, helping to protect coastal lands from rising sea levels. So we need to protect more than just fish. We need to protect their homes so that they can protect ours.

“Sustainable Development Goal 14 of the United Nations aims to “conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

“Achieving this goal will require rebuilding the marine life-support systems that deliver the many benefits that society receives from a healthy ocean. Here we document the recovery of marine populations, habitats and ecosystems following past conservation interventions.

“Recovery rates across studies suggest that substantial recovery of the abundance, structure and function of marine life could be achieved by 2050, if major pressures—including climate change—are mitigated. Rebuilding marine life represents a doable Grand Challenge for humanity, an ethical obligation and a smart economic objective to achieve a sustainable future.” – Duarte et al, 2021

Fig.1: The little red dot off Invercargill may be the only official ‘dead zone’ around Aotearoa, but other areas are fast catching up.
Fig. 2: Eight illustrative pathways by which MPAs can mitigate and promote adaptations to climate change (Image: Roberts et al /PNAS).
Fig. 3: Marine Protected Areas around New Zealand (this is currently under review) (Image: MPI).

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